North American Model of Wildlife Conservation
Principles Guiding Wildlife Management and Conservation
North American Model of Wildlife Conservation is a set of principles that has guided wildlife management and conservation decisions in the United States and Canada. Although not formally articulated until 2001, the model has its origins in 19th century conservation movements, the near extinction of several species of wildlife (including the American Bison) and the rise of sportsmen with the middle class. Beginning in the 1860s sportsmen began to organize and advocate for the preservation of wilderness areas and wildlife. The North American Model of Wildlife Conservation rests on two basic principles – fish and wildlife are for the non-commercial use of citizens, and should be managed such that they are available at optimum population levels forever.
Significance
The North American model has no direct legal
powers, but rather has become the basis for policies
developed by the Boone and Crockett Club, the
International Association of Fish and Wildlife
Agencies, The Wildlife Society, and other
conservation groups. The model has been widely
accepted by wildlife professionals, incorporated
into U.S. state agencies, and endorsed by
professional organizations and teaching
institutions.
Tenets
The core principles of the Model are elaborated upon
in the seven major tenets:
-
Wildlife as Public Trust Resources
-
Elimination of Markets for Game
-
Allocation of Wildlife by Law
-
Wildlife Should Only be Killed for a Legitimate Purpose
-
Wildlife is Considered an International Resource
-
Science is the Proper Tool for Discharge of Wildlife Policy
-
Democracy of Hunting
Wildlife as Public
Trust Resources
In the North American
Model, wildlife is held in the public trust. This
means that fish and wildlife are held by the public
through state and federal governments. In other
words, though an individual may own the land up
which wildlife resides, that individual does not own
said wildlife. Instead, the wildlife is owned by all
citizens. With origins in Roman times and English
Common law, the public trust doctrine has at its
heart the 1842 Supreme Court ruling Martin V.
Waddell.
Elimination of
Markets for Game
Commercial hunting and
the sale of wildlife is prohibited to ensure the
sustainability of wildlife population. This
principle holds that that unregulated economic
markets for game and nongame wildlife are
unacceptable because they privatize a common
resource and lead to declines. The Lacey Act of 1900
effectively made market hunting illegal in the
United States, and the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of
1918 provided international protections from the
market.
Allocation of
Wildlife by Law
Wildlife is allocated
to the public by law, as opposed to market
principles, land ownership, or other status.
Democratic processes and public input into
law-making help ensure access is equitable. Laws
regulating access to wildlife include the 1940 Bald
and Golden Eagle Protection Act, Endangered Species
Preservation Act and Fur Seal Act of 1966, the
Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972, and the 1973
Endangered Species Act.
Wildlife Should Only
be Killed for a Legitimate Purpose
Under the North American Model, the killing of game
must be done only for food, fur, self-defense, and
the protection of property (including livestock). In
other words, it is broadly regarded as unlawful and
unethical to kill fish or wildlife (even with a
license) without making all reasonable effort to
retrieve and make reasonable use of the resource.
Wildlife is
Considered an International Resource
As
wildlife do not exist only within fixed political
boundaries, effective management of these resources
must be done internationally, through treaties and
the cooperation of management agencies.
Science is the Proper
Tool for Discharge of Wildlife Policy
The North American Model recognizes science as a
basis for informed management and decision-making
processes. This tenet draws from the writings of
Aldo Leopold, who in the 1930s called for a wildlife
conservation movement facilitated by trained
wildlife biologists that made decisions based on
facts, professional experience, and commitment to
shared underlying principles, rather than strictly
interests of hunting, stocking, or culling of
predators. Science in wildlife policy includes
studies of population dynamics, behavior, habitat,
adaptive management, and national surveys of hunting
and fishing.
Democracy of Hunting
This tenet is inspired by Theodore Roosevelt's idea
that open access to hunting would result in many
benefits to society. The right to hunt in the United
States and Canada by citizens of good standing is in
contrast to nations where hunting is restricted to
people with wealth, land ownership, or other special
privileges. This tenet supports access to firearms
and the hunting industry, of which much funding for
conservation is derived.
Criticism
Some authors have questioned whether the North
America Model is inclusive of all wildlife
conservation interests or exclusively narrow in its
application. The North American model has also been
criticized as presenting an "inadequate history" and
prescribing "inadequate ethics" of conservation, and
in giving recreational hunting disproportionate
credit for its role in conservation. Critics say
some tenets are flawed or misguided, for example
that the tenet Elimination of Markets for Game
overlooks the conservation success of Europe - where
wildlife is privatized and commercialized - and
ignores the role of sustainable harvest strategies,
or that some hunting activity may be inherently
contradictory to the tenet Wildlife Should Only
be Killed for a Legitimate Purpose.